Abstract1The paper was presented at the International Conference “Some New Trends in Contemporary Religion Studies” by the group of authors: Ngọc Hà, Việt Phương, and Hữu Thượng.
The syncretism of the three teachings is a recurring phenomenon in East Asian culture. Through the framework of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism as its core, this syncretism seeks to interpret natural and social issues, as well as thought, in a way that is both interconnected in purpose and distinct in approach. During the middle and modern periods in Vietnam, this tripartite structure encountered new religions. From the perspective of those practicing syncretism, this phenomenon necessitates a fresh perspective to adapt to the rules of acculturation and respond appropriately to the evolving dynamics of cultural exchange. Tran Trong Kim stands out as a pioneer in this process. Through his writings, deeply imbued with both Eastern and Western perspectives, Tran Trong Kim demonstrated the flexibility of the traditional tripartite structure in addressing new historical challenges. In this spirit, this study analyzes Tran Trong Kim’s trilogy Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism within the context of cultural exchange, thereby contributing to the diversity of contemporary religious studies.
Keywords: Tran Trong Kim; Three Teachings syncretism; religious syncretism, religions in Vietnam
Introduction
Generally speaking, almost all religions strive to establish clear boundaries to proactively address their most central issue – an ultimate concern. However, within the historical context of East Asian countries, these boundaries seem blurred by the region’s characteristic phenomenon: the syncretism of the three teachings. Regarding this issue, in “On the Question of the Unification of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism”, Chinese scholar Tang Yijie 湯一介 (1927-2014) recounted being questioned by the Dutch Sinologist Kristofer Schipper (1934-2021): “Why have there been almost no wars over religious ideology in Chinese history?” (Tang, 2012, p. 5). This question extends beyond China to other East Asian nations like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam that share a similar cultural sphere. Rather than exploring immediate explanations for this phenomenon, we will focus on the syncretic nature of the three teachings to better understand its historical and geographical development.
Entering the modern era, East Asian countries began to engage in broader cultural exchanges. The interaction between the tripartite structure and its indigenous characteristics led to collisions with religions introduced from outside. We argue that a reassessment of the syncretic nature of the three teachings is essential to provide new insights into these encounters. Specifically, in Vietnam, Trinh Van Thao, in his Vietnam du Confucianisme au Communisme: Un essai d’itinéraire intellectuel (Vietnam from Confucianism to Communism: An essay on the intellectual itinerary), outlined Vietnam’s intellectual journey as an open path intertwined with various spiritual elements centered around the Confucianism – Communism axis. Notably, he emphasized that the tripartite structure in Vietnam exhibits a clear division between secular and religious authority in the realm of thought. This division forms a tripod, enabling Vietnam to confront external elements effectively.
The guiding points raised by both Tang Yijie and Trinh Van Thao suggest that the syncretism of the three teachings is not a static system but rather one that undergoes transformations within the currents of history.
In the case of Vietnam, Tran Trong Kim (pen name Le Than, 1883-1953) stands out as a scholar with a high degree of self-education regarding the importance of the syncretism of the three teachings. Through his works, Tran Trong Kim outlined a unique perspective on this phenomenon, aiming to demonstrate the adaptability of this tripartite structure to historical changes. His ideas on the syncretism of the three teachings are most evident in his trilogy: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in three lectures (hereafter abbreviated as Buddhism). Examining Tran Trong Kim’s perspective on this syncretism contributes to outlining new directions for this structure within the context of religious diversity and viewing the historical approach to syncretism as a traditional value for addressing critical and urgent issues facing religions today.
Therefore, this study establishes a religious foundation for Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism and focuses on clarifying Tran Trong Kim’s perspective on syncretism through his trilogy, with the following focal points: First, the syncretism of the Three Teachings: A Diachronic Perspective from China; Second, Tran Trong Kim and the issue of the syncretism of the Three Teachings; and finally, some observations on studying the syncretism of the Three Teachings within the context of contemporary religious diversity.
Literature review
Research on the syncretism of the three teachings through the works of Tran Trong Kim falls under the category of studying a general issue through a specific case. Following this logic, we categorize the literature review into (i) studies on the syncretism of the three teachings in general, and (ii) studies on the religious views of Tran Trong Kim.
The first group explores the nature and manifestation of the syncretism of the three teachings. Most studies in this group are conducted by East Asian scholars (He, 2011; Tang, 2012; Mou, 2013; Hong, 2019; Ning, 2019; Mou, 2022; Xie, 2023). Some Western scholars have also paid attention to this issue (Weber, 1951; Maspero, 2000).
In Vietnam, the Confucian scholar class during the Middle Ages pioneered discussions on the syncretism of the three teachings through notable works like Trinh Hue’s Tam giáo nhất nguyên thuyết 《三教一原說》(Theory of the Single Origin of the Three Teachings, 1744), Ngo Thi Nham’s Trúc Lâm tông chỉ nguyên thanh 《竹林宗旨元聲》(Original Voice of the Bamboo Forest Sect’s Doctrine, 1796), and Tam giáo chánh độ tập yếu 《三教正度輯要》 (Essential Collection of the Orthodox Path of the Three Teachings, 1892). With the introduction of Christianity in Vietnam, the issue of the syncretism of the three teachings was also approached and studied by Christian scholars, leading to works like Hội đồng tứ giáo 《會同四教》(Council of Four Religions, 1867) and Tam giáo chư vọng 《三教諸妄》 (Errors of the Three Religions, 1752)2Tam giáo chư vọng is a manuscript, not yet published. It is currently stored at the Archives of the Foreign Missions of Paris (Archives des Missions Etrangères de Paris, abbreviated as AMEP). The work is numbered V-1098 with the full name: Tam Giáo Chư Vọng: Livre en langue annamite (MEP, 2022). The full text of the work can be accessed in the appendix of Tran Quoc Anh’s 2011 doctoral dissertation at Georgetown University (Tran Quoc Anh, 2011, pp. 591-691).. In Vietnam, the tripartite structure is closely intertwined with indigenous beliefs. This phenomenon has also become a captivating subject for scholars during both the colonial period and afterward, resulting in insightful and intriguing works. Prime examples include Diguet (1906) Les Annamites: Société, coutumes, religions (The Annamese: Society, Customs, Religions, 1906), Giran (1912) Magie et religion annamites: Introduction à une philosophie de la civilisation du peuple d’Annam (translated into Vietnamese as Magic and Beliefs of the Annamese: Introduction to a Philosophy of Civilization of the Annamese People, 1912), and Gobron (1949) Histoire et philosophie du Caodaisme (History and Philosophy of Caodaism, 1949).
The syncretism of the three teachings has been discussed in various aspects and to different extents in research by contemporary Vietnamese scholars such as Dao Duy Anh (1938), Nguyen Dang Thuc (1992), Nguyen Tai Thu (1999), Cao Xuan Huy (2003), Le Anh Dung (2010), Nguyen Kim Son (2007, 2016), Nguyen Lang (2019), and Nguyen Tuan Cuong (2022).
The second group focuses on researching Tran Trong Kim’s religious viewpoints and stance on syncretism. Notable works include Luận đề về Trần Trọng Kim 1882-1953 (Thesis on Tran Trong Kim 1882-1953, 1960) and Nội các Trần Trọng Kim: Bản chất, vai trò và vị trí lịch sử (Tran Trong Kim’s Cabinet: Nature, Role, and Historical Position, 2018). Tran Trong Kim is also frequently studied in literary and historical works, as well as in intellectual history, as a scholar, as seen in Vietnam du confucianisme au communisme: Un essai d’itinéraire intellectuel (1990), Nhà văn hiện đại (Modern Writers, 1951), Việt Nam Thi văn hợp tuyển (Anthology of Vietnamese Literature, 1951), Phê bình văn học thế hệ 1932 (Critique of the 1932 Generation’s Literature, 1972), and Ba Thế Hệ Trí Thức Người Việt (1862 – 1954) – Nghiên Cứu Lịch Sử Xã Hội (Three Generations of Vietnamese Intellectuals (1862-1954) – Studies in Social History, 2020).
The syncretism of the three teachings: A diachronic perspective from China
Using the center-periphery model to approach East Asian cultural studies remains a subject of debate. However, it is undeniable that China is where the tripartite structure originated, with its inherent characteristics.
Historically, the emergence of the so-called “three teachings” is marked by Buddhism’s introduction to China during the Eastern Han dynasty and its interaction with the two indigenous intellectual traditions of Confucianism and Taoism. From its inception, some Buddhist monks like Dao An 道安 (312-385) and Huiyuan 慧遠 (334-416) utilized Laozi and Zhuangzi’s texts to explain Mahayana Buddhist doctrines. This can be seen as a sign of the burgeoning syncretism of the three teachings.
Despite the proselytizing efforts of Buddhist monks, the spirit of Confucian exclusivity, inherited from the Han dynasty’s suppression of other schools of thought, persisted. Consequently, Buddhism and Taoism were not initially considered equal to Confucianism. It was only with the rise of Neo-Taoism and the efforts of figures like Xiang Xiu 向秀 (227-275) and Guo Xiang 郭象 (252-312), who actively sought to interpret Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist texts together, that the tripartite structure truly began to take shape.
Under Neo-Taoism’s influence, Chinese intellectual life flourished, becoming more diverse and characterized by the interweaving of philosophical and religious ideas. Confucianism, centered on Confucius and Mencius, maintained its focus on sociopolitical issues. Meanwhile, Buddhism and Taoism, with their strong metaphysical orientations, offered a rich tapestry of thought to help individuals grapple with ultimate concerns.
However, a doctrine with a strong historical consciousness and worldly focus like Confucianism naturally would not accept any rivals in its development. During the Warring States period, Mencius actively engaged in persuasion and debates with other schools of thought to defend Confucianism’s orthodoxy (its status and authority). Within the tripartite framework, this tradition continued to develop, most notably with representatives of Neo-Confucianism. Confucian scholars such as Han Yu 韓愈 (768-824), Cheng Hao 程顥 (1032-1085), Cheng Yi 程頤 (1033-1107), and Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130-1200) vehemently refuted Buddhist and Taoist arguments. Conversely, both Buddhist and Taoist thinkers engaged in heated debates with Confucians on topics like the immortality of the soul and religious symbols to safeguard their own lineages.
This complex situation seemingly pushed all three religions toward extremism and isolation from each other. However, as “struggle breeds peace, and rejection leads to integration” (Li, 2003, p. 7), the further intellectual history progressed, the more frequently terms like “syncretism”, “unification”, “parallel practice”, and “common origin” appeared as suffixes accompanying the “three teachings”. From the Song and Ming to the Yuan and Qing dynasties, the wave of syncretism among the three teachings gained momentum both quantitatively and qualitatively, enriching spiritual and intellectual life.
Within the East Asian cultural sphere, the influence of Chinese culture and the Sinicization process transformed China into an “independent civilization”. Countries like Vietnam, Korea, and Japan “belong to a category (sous-classe) we might call ‘satellite civilizations’” (Toynbee, 2002, p. 61). These satellite civilizations adopted the tripartite model and influenced its structure based on indigenous elements. Consequently, the characteristics of syncretism also gradually shifted according to each nation’s and ethnic group’s conditions, shaping East Asian civilization into a unified whole within its diversity.
However, to seek a unified perspective on the syncretic nature of the three teachings within East Asia, consider the following characteristics:
(i) Many in One. Drawing inspiration from the Yijing, the first shared characteristic of the three teachings can be described as “arriving at the same destination through different paths”. Throughout their history and development, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism have all advocated for the pursuit of a metaphysical realm characterized by a distinct sense of pantheism. They posit that all manifestations of reality embody a singular, eternal essence, and that amidst the myriad forms and transformations lies an ultimate truth. This progression from “many” to “one” addresses humanity’s shared ultimate concern about life and transcendental existence. While this ultimate reality is given different names— “Taiji” in Confucianism, “Dao” in Taoism, and “Tathata” in Buddhism—the underlying concept of unity remains consistent. Because they ultimately converge on this fundamental principle, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism exhibit a deep compatibility, unlike the exclusivist nature often found in other religions.
(ii) Promoting Good and Restraining Evil. This inherent essence is considered inherently good. During the process of creation, while all things are endowed with it, they also become tainted by evil elements that obscure their true nature. Therefore, another characteristic of syncretism within the three teachings lies in upholding goodness and curbing evil. The Great Learning《大學》, one of Confucianism’s essential classics, outlines three core aspects of self-cultivation: manifesting one’s inherent moral clarity, showing reverence to all people, and striving for the highest good. The Six Perfections – six practices for attaining Buddhahood in Mahayana Buddhism – profoundly embody the concept of goodness. Similarly, Taoism’s emphasis on wholeness, selflessness, and non-action underscores the innate goodness within all things.
(iii) The Presence of a Profound Political Element. Despite the evident syncretism among the three teachings, both logically and historically, this structure has always been subject to the influence of political life, particularly in the selection of a dominant element. For instance, the pursuit of immortality led to periods where Taoism was elevated, as seen during the reigns of Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 and Emperor Wu of Han 漢武帝. Similarly, fervent devotion to Buddhist teachings resulted in its flourishing during the Sui and Tang dynasties. Later, to stabilize society and revive Confucian values, Confucianism was championed during the Song, Ming, Yuan, and Qing dynasties.
Although their prominence fluctuated, all three teachings contributed to shaping the ideal individual: a “sage within and a king without”. When applied to this ideal, the tripartite structure reveals both constant and variable aspects. While the promotion of Buddhism or Taoism might depend on the ruler’s personal beliefs, the systems and policies they implemented were invariably guided by the principles of a politicized Confucianism. (Tang, 2012, p. 8).
Tran Trong Kim and the issue of the syncretism of the Three Teachings
Instead of mechanical addition or a progression toward inherent interconnections, 19th-century Vietnam witnessed the flourishing of a conscious and theoretically grounded approach to the syncretism of the three teachings. Its universality “was recognized and embraced by nearly everyone, creating a genuine social impact” (Li & He, 2005, p. 408). As described in Les Annamites: Société, coutumes, religions, E. Diguet depicted a scene from a temple in northern Vietnam with the theme of the three teachings’ syncretism and considered it a widespread phenomenon in traditional religious architecture. This was so paradoxical that he posed a rhetorical question: “Could they [the Vietnamese – author’s note] not be mistaken for our [the French – author’s note] intolerant ideas in religious matters?” (Diguet, 1906, p. 308).
The syncretic nature of the three teachings has always been a significant question for many non-East Asian religious traditions. This contradiction intensified as encounters between civilizations became more frequent and profound. Religions from the West, particularly Christianity, along with the expansion of colonialism, increasingly became counterpoints to the three teachings.
Faced with this pivotal shift, Vietnamese intellectuals adopted various stances and attitudes: some embraced the new, some clung to the old, and some sought reconciliation between the two. Tran Trong Kim represents the stance of integrating both new and old within the tripartite structure. He advocated for an approach to interpreting Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist scriptures that combined them with Western science and the democratic model. This approach broadened the “syncretism in diversity” 和而不同 principle beyond just the relationship among the three teachings to encompass greater openness towards other religions.
Examining the perspective on the syncretism of the three teachings reflected in Tran Trong Kim’s trilogy highlights two main points: first, the reformation of Neo-Confucianism; and second, Buddhism and Taoism as both religious salvations and embodiments of metaphysical realms.
Reforming Neo-Confucianism as the mainstream of the syncretism of the Three Teachings
Toward the end of the feudal period, the syncretism of the three teachings in Vietnam increasingly tended to view Confucianism as the dominant stream within this structure. The issue is that the Confucianism Tran Trong Kim discussed differed from the spirit held by Confucian scholars and the policies of the Nguyen dynasty at the time. In Tran Trong Kim’s understanding, it was modern Neo-Confucianism. To thoroughly explain this issue, it’s necessary to revisit Vietnam’s historical context during the period of Christianity’s robust propagation under the Later Le and Trinh lords.
Contrary to the favorable conditions for missionary work in other East Asian countries, Vietnam became a failure for Catholic missionaries because “the worldview of officials and Confucian scholars could not accommodate this new doctrine” (Cao Huy Thuan, 2017, pp. 421-422). This difficulty demanded that Christianity forge stronger ties with the colonial power. Consequently, two successive Resident Superiors of Tonkin and Annam, Paul Bert (1833-1886) and Étienne Antoine Guillaume Richaud (1841-1889, later Governor-General of Indochina) 3The subsequent policies of Paul Bert and Étienne Antoine Guillaume Richaud were later called the Paul Bert method and the Richaud method. The French used these two methods to suppress the development of feudal society and reduce the prestige of the Confucian scholar class. For more information, see Chapter XI of the book Missionaries and French Colonial Policy in Vietnam (1857-1914) (Cao Huy Thuan, 2017, pp. 336-346)., became crucial figures for Catholic priests in implementing a hybrid governance system blending religious and secular authority in late 19th century Vietnamese society, particularly through policies suppressing the influence of the aristocratic Confucian scholar class.
The spirit that Vietnamese Confucian scholars championed at that time was Neo-Confucianism – a doctrine imbued with metaphysical elements. However, upon entering a society that valued the Confucian examination system, it was not surprising that Neo-Confucianism gradually “transformed” into a more pragmatic approach. This practicality, of course, couldn’t withstand the enduring alliance between Christianity and French colonial policies. Furthermore, the Vietnamese intellectual community was already divided in its stance. The emergence of a stance critical of Confucianism (exemplified by figures like Nguyen An Ninh (1899-1943) and the Tu Luc Van Đoan – Self-Strengthening Literary Group) pushed Confucianism to the brink of decline. As a Confucian scholar with a sense of responsibility for defending the teachings, Tran Trong Kim recognized the imperative to modernize Neo-Confucianism.
In 1930, Tran Trong Kim debuted his treatise Confucianism, marking a pivotal work in his thought on the syncretism of the three teachings. Confucianism, written in the Vietnamese national language (Quoc ngu), provided such a comprehensive account of the formation and development of the teachings of Confucius and Mencius that it “overshadowed studies by scholars with Confucian backgrounds, like Phan Boi Chau’s Khổng học đăng” (Trinh Van Thao, 1991, p. 269). Through this work, Confucianism was presented by Tran Trong Kim as a doctrine with sufficient systematization and methodology, thereby opening up a “new spirit, adaptable to its environment, its level, and its mentality” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943a, p. 10). In Confucianism, Tran Trong Kim’s idea of the syncretism of the three teachings, with Confucianism as its central stream, is reflected through two focal points: modernizing Neo-Confucianism and democratizing Confucianism.
Firstly, regarding modernizing Neo-Confucianism: The historical trajectory of Confucianism can be summarized into five stages: the Confucianism of Confucius and Mencius, Han-Tang Confucianism, Song-Ming Confucianism (Neo-Confucianism)4Neo-Confucianism is a term used to refer to a specific form of development in the history of Confucianism, beginning in the late Tang and early Song dynasties with representatives such as Han Yu, Li Ao 李翱 (772–841), and reaching its peak during the Song and Ming dynasties. The philosophical doctrine of Neo-Confucianism focuses on explaining metaphysical issues as a supplement to traditional Confucianism., Yuan-Qing Confucianism, and modern Neo-Confucianism. Arguably, every stage and form of Confucianism’s development has tended to return to the spirit of Confucius and Mencius to acknowledge its roots. Tran Trong Kim’s Confucianism is also presented in this direction. However, he emphasized that the stage most clearly embodying the spirit of syncretism was Neo-Confucianism. Subtle interpretation is a common characteristic of Confucian scholars, and Tran Trong Kim was no exception. By interpreting the perspectives within Neo-Confucianism, he provided explanations based on a scientific spirit in merging and harmonizing Eastern and Western concepts. His work considers Song-Ming Confucianism as a shining example of philosophical profundity. Tran Trong Kim attributed this profundity to “the influence of Taoism and Buddhism” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943b, p. 145). For instance, Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤 (1017-1073), the founder of Neo-Confucianism, applied the concept of Wuji from Taoism to theorize about the origin of all things. Representatives of the Cheng-Zhu school (Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Zhu Xi) were influenced by the Huayan school of Buddhism 華嚴宗 in constructing the categorial system of Lixue 理學 (the study of Li – principle).
Although each Neo-Confucian scholar had diverse inclinations, Confucianism is categorized into three branches, with two prominent influences: Daoxue 道學 (School of Principle) and Xinxue 心學 (School of Mind). Daoxue, based on Zhu Xi’s perspectives, is also known as the Zhuzi School, while Xinxue, perfected by Wang Yangming 王陽明 (1472-1528), is also known as the Yangming School 陽明學. A look at the history of Confucianism’s development in Vietnam reveals that most feudal dynasties affirmed the orthodoxy of the Zhuzi School 朱子學, paying little attention to the Yangming School. Conversely, Tran Trong Kim’s Confucianism exhibited a contrasting attitude. In this work, he took a critical stance towards the Zhuzi School tradition because, according to him, despite utilizing Buddhist and Taoist ideas, it “became bogged down in minutiae, leading to continued misinterpretations of Confucian tenets” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943a, p. 50).
Tran Trong Kim argued that Confucianism, similar to Buddhism and Taoism, belonged to East Asian pantheistic doctrines, “because of shared principles, these doctrines all adhere to the idea of ‘Heaven, Earth, and the Myriad Things as One’” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943b, p. 143). The strength of Neo-Confucianism lies in clarifying the ontological unity of all things and reaching conclusions about perfecting human nature. According to him, the method to achieve this is to use intuition to connect with all things – a process of “moving from within to without” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943a, p. 110). In this state, reason and language cannot fully capture the essence of things. However, the Zhuzi School’s perspectives clearly showed a rationalistic (intellectual) bias. Its method of investigation of things to fathom principles 格物穷理was deemed “narrow-minded in its emphasis on moral cultivation […] overly focused on words and phrases, leaning too heavily on textual analysis without fully grasping the profound psychology of Confucius and Mencius” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943b, p. 243).
Tran Trong Kim’s critique of the Zhuzi School in Confucianism implied a reassessment of the traditional lineage to establish a new Dao tong5Dao tong 道統 (the orthodoxy of Confucianism) is a doctrine proposed by Han Yu to define what is the true transmission of Confucianism from Confucius and Mencius.. Here, he drew upon the Yangming School’s perspectives and irrationalist philosophy to define his stance. The prevalence of the Zhuzi School, with its emphasiss on rhetoric and the examination system, had led society to a state where culture thrived while practicality declined, making people “afraid to boldly move forward, resulting in weakness and superficiality” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943c, p. 84). Therefore, Tran Trong Kim argued that only the Yangming School, with its emphasis on intuition, could assume the role of the mainstream within the tripartite structure and hold an orthodox position within the lineage of this doctrine.
Regarding the distinctive content of the Yangming School, according to Tran Trong Kim, it consists of the unity of innate knowing and action. However, stopping there would mean that the Yangming School, or the Neo-Confucianism that Tran Trong Kim championed, would offer nothing particularly new compared to contemporary works. As the German philosopher G.F.W. Hegel wrote, philosophy “is its own time comprehended in thought” – the Zeitgeist (Hegel, 2010, p. 84). Regionally, the social context of East Asian nations had prompted the Confucian scholar class to experience the Asian awakening. The convergence of East and West gave rise to a new trend: modern Neo-Confucianism. There are many interpretations of this term, but a common understanding of modern Neo-Confucianism is the acknowledgment of Confucianism’s ability to transform and integrate with Western values. In Vietnam, the Confucian scholar class, after absorbing the influence of new social changes, became distinct from the previous generation. They admired figures like Rousseau and Montesquieu, emulating new writing styles, leading to a shift where “their prose also began to exhibit the clarity and lucidity of Western writing” (Hoai Thanh & Hoai Chân, 1996, p. 16).
As for Tran Trong Kim, his life’s journey was deeply intertwined with French scholarship. Consequently, he actively applied the perspectives of French philosophy, particularly in Confucianism. Earlier, we discussed the intuitive method within Confucianism as the basis for determining the true transmission of Confucius and Mencius’ teachings. However, intuition solely from an Eastern perspective would undoubtedly be overly mystical and difficult to define. Therefore, Tran Trong Kim restructured this concept’s meaning by integrating it with Henri Bergson’s perspectives on intuition. Specifically, Confucianism consistently addresses the proposition: “Liangzhi is intuition”, and “the more closely we examine Henri Bergson’s philosophy, the more clearly we see the profound aspects of Confucianism” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943a, p. 36). He believed that humans possess an inherent clarity to perceive things, referred to by various names like “Mingde” 明德, “Liangzhi” 良知, or “Zhijue” 直覺. These terms all allude to “a highly sensitive intuitive faculty, capable of immediately grasping the spirit and truth of things” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943a, p. 107).
“Liangzhi” is a concept introduced by Mencius, referring to knowing without thinking (所不慮而知者其良知, what one knows without having to think about it is innate knowing). Meanwhile, H. Bergson’s ‘intuition’ ‘by intuition is meant the kind of intellectual sympathy by which one places oneself within an object in order to coincide with what is unique in it and consequently inexpressible’ (Bergson, 1912, p. 7). According to Confucianism, “Liangzhi” is both the capacity for knowing without thinking, similar to Bergson’s intuition, and carries an ontological implication when referring to the unity of all things. Tran Trong Kim unified the epistemological and ontological aspects of this concept to mitigate the mystical nature of intuition solely from an Eastern perspective.
In Confucianism, Tran Trong Kim delved deeper into “Liangzhi-Intuition” while examining the Yangming School. When discussing metaphysics, he found a certain degree of compatibility between the Yangming School and Taoism. “The Dao belongs to the realm of metaphysics; we can comprehend it through our inherent clarity and intuitive awareness, but it cannot be seen with the eyes nor heard with the ears” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943c, p. 72). The phrase “inherent clarity and intuitive awareness”, based on Wang Yangming’s original work, refers to “Zhi Liangzhi”6Original text:
「良知者《孟子》所謂是非之心人皆有之者也是非之心不待慮而知不待學而能是故謂之良知是乃天命之性吾心之本體自然靈昭明覺者也」(Wang Yangming, minguo 民國) Translation: “Liangzhi is what Mencius calls the mind that knows right and wrong, which everyone possesses. The mind that knows right and wrong does not need to ponder to know, it does not need to learn to be able to, therefore it is called liangzhi. This is the nature of Heaven’s mandate, the natural essence of our hearts, which is inherently bright, clear, and aware” (Wang Yangming, Republic of China).
and is interpreted by Tran Trong Kim as “intuition”. According to him, the sage merely needs to “understand the true nature of Zhi Liangzhi, and nothing more” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943c, p. 104). The essence of Zhi Liangzhi does not reside in textual knowledge. Therefore, it mustn’t be confined to texts, nor should it completely abandon words and phrases. This characteristic of the Yangming School, as discussed in Confucianism, bears resemblance to the ideas of Chan Buddhism.
Naturally, Tran Trong Kim focused on meticulously reforming Neo-Confucianism because his intention was to establish a new Dao tong. In Vietnam’s history, Ho Quy Ly (1336-1407) also presented discussions on the orthodoxy of the teachings of Confucius and Mencius7See Minh Dao 《明道》by Ho Quy Ly. The complete text of this work has been lost, but its main content is still recorded in the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư: Bản kỷ nhà Trần – Thuận Tông Hoàng Đế (《大越史記全書: 陳紀·順宗皇帝》, the Complete Annals of Dai Viet, the section on the Tran Dynasty, Emperor Thuan Tong) (Le Van Huu et al., 1967, pp. 22a-22b).. However, in terms of content, Tran Trong Kim’s perspective demonstrated greater scientific rigor compared to the thinking of the Ho dynasty ruler. Ultimately, this characteristic deviates significantly from the essence of a religion. If the goal was to harmonize the three teachings, why did Tran Trong Kim choose (Neo-) Confucianism as the central stream for modernization? Meanwhile, as Confucianism regresses further in time, its religious nature becomes more apparent. For instance, in the Confucianism of Confucius and Mencius, more than any other period, “it’s challenging to separate it from the influence of primitive religion” (Ning, 2019, p. 4). Why didn’t Tran Trong Kim consider the Confucianism of Confucius and Mencius as a potential basis for harmonizing the three teachings? We believe the most plausible explanation is that Neo-Confucianism addresses issues that previous forms of Confucianism could not. Furthermore, modern Neo-Confucianism sets even loftier goals that Neo-Confucianism itself couldn’t achieve. This refers to representing both Buddhism and Taoism in engaging in dialogue with the democratic model.
Secondly, regarding democratizing Confucianism: In Tran Trong Kim’s view, for the tripartite structure to remain steadfast, it requires not only a religious dimension but also a political one. Buddhism and Taoism, with their emphasis on emptiness and detachment from worldly affairs, led to the understanding that the subject responsible for this task was none other than Confucianism. However, this does not imply that Confucianism should be viewed solely as a doctrine for governing, especially in Vietnam, where it is “impossible to separate its religious nature from its political and social aspects” (Cao Huy Thuan, 2017, p. 249).
Within Confucian doctrine, the image of the monarch holds a position of high esteem. However, in a society undergoing transition like Vietnam at the time, this position was gradually diminishing. Tran Trong Kim resisted this trend. In Confucianism, he argued that the shift from monarchy to democracy was merely a change in form, not substance, because “every form of government requires sovereign power” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943a, p. 248). He viewed sovereign power as a concept with religious connotations, something “bestowed by the Mandate of Heaven” (Tran Trong Kim, 1943a, p. 249).
Importantly, Tran Trong Kim did not see this “Mandate” as tied to a specific individual, nor did he negate its collective nature. He interpreted it as follows: in a feudal society, the king receives the Mandate of Heaven and is responsible for implementing righteous governance. If the king abuses this power, Heaven can transfer the Mandate to another individual or entity. This concept of “Mandate” (命) is frequently discussed in the Analects. Confucius himself stated, “It is Fate that the Way should prevail. It is Fate, too, that it should fall into disuse” 道之將行也與命也道之將廢也與命也 (Chu, 1998, p. 552). The Confucian “Mandate” shares similarities with the Christian notion of “providence”, where all events are preordained by a transcendent power. Humans can only follow the Mandate, not question its origins.
By examining the Mandate from a political perspective, Tran Trong Kim took a step towards democratizing Confucian doctrine. He argued that sovereign power, as determined by the Mandate of Heaven, aligns perfectly with the democratic model where a representative body holds state power. In essence, Tran Trong Kim’s reasoning reflects a blend of religious and secular authority, where religious authority (the Mandate) remains a constant, while secular authority (the political model) can evolve.
Consequently, his ideas in Confucianism are remarkably flexible. Rather than definitively asserting the monarch as the sole arbiter of the syncretism of the three teachings, he demonstrates that this structure can thrive within a democratic context. A state where power rests with the majority can foster a more diverse form of syncretism, free from the dictates of a single individual. This perspective resonates with Vietnam’s history, which has witnessed various forms of governance and expressions of syncretism.
Initially, the concept of sovereign power as proposed by Confucianism faced strong opposition from contemporary scholars like Phan Khoi8Phan Khoi, a scholar and Confucian with a leftist stance, once criticized Tran Trong Kim’s book Confucianism in the Phụ Nữ Tân Văn (New Woman Newspaper) in order to point out the inconsistencies of the book.(1887-1959) and Ngo Tat To (1893-1954). Phan Khoi refuted Tran Trong Kim’s notion of sovereign power, arguing that “every form of government requires sovereign power’ – that statement is incorrect. It should be said that every form of government requires sovereignty, that’s accurate” (Phan Khoi, 2006, p. 191). This sovereignty is determined by the constitution, representing the will of the people.
In defense of his arguments, Tran Trong Kim emphasized sovereign power as a transcendent, universal, and indispensable value. He argued that even a constitutional government simply outlines “agreements for the implementation of sovereign power” (Tran Trong Kim, 1930, p. 15). This point was also strongly contested by Ngo Tat To in his Critique of Tran Trong Kim’s Confucianism, a work clearly influenced by pragmatism. Ngo Tat To argued that Confucianism, in its entirety, lacked a clear distinction between sovereign power and the emperor who wields that power, rendering Tran Trong Kim’s interpretation a fallacy. He even provocatively asserted that, following Tran Trong Kim’s logic, Confucian thought “resembles not only Jean-Jacques Rousseau but also Karl Marx and Lenin” (Ngo Tat To, 1940, p. 42).
However, these opposing perspectives should not be viewed solely as criticisms. They reflect the diverse viewpoints within the intellectual community regarding the feasibility and approach to modernizing Confucianism during the early modern period. Throughout Confucianism, Tran Trong Kim consistently championed the modernization of Confucian teachings. He frequently drew comparisons between Confucianism and figures from the Western philosophical tradition, including Heraclitus, Parmenides, Socrates, Spinoza, Hegel, and Auguste Comte, highlighting both similarities and differences. This comparative approach aimed to affirm Confucianism’s continued relevance in the modern era and reassert its central position within the tripartite structure of Vietnamese thought.
Buddhism and Taoism: Both as Religious Salvations and Embodiments of Metaphysical Realms
Tran Trong Kim’s guiding idea when discussing the syncretism of the three teachings is the proposition: “Heaven, Earth, and the Myriad Things are One”, emphasizing the relationship between essence and humanity. Western philosophical tradition prioritizes metaphysics as an unending quest for pure, objective reality. In contrast, in the East, due to the inherent unity between Heaven and humanity, metaphysics carries an inherent subjective element. This gives rise to an existence within the human psyche that embodies objective essence, known as “Metaphysics of Ideal State” 境界形而上學. This is a crucial starting point for any intellectual or philosophical pursuit in the history of Eastern philosophy. Addressing the issues of this Metaphysics of Ideal State is not merely a scholastic endeavor; it serves to shape human life. It is precisely in this context that the contents of this metaphysical realm intersect with religion, forming a millennia-old stream of thought. In the Eastern mindset, human life represents the convergence of religion and philosophy. However, throughout history, these two aspects have been so intertwined and overlapping that “human life in the past was largely shaped by the influence of religions” (Tran Trong Kim, 1936, p. 12).
In Tran Trong Kim’s trilogy, if Confucianism is tasked with handling elements related to Western science and democracy within the syncretism structure, then Taoism and Buddhism focus on reshaping the purpose of human life on both fronts: providing religious salvation and using reason to establish faith.
The work Taoism first appeared in the Nam Phong magazine in 1923, published in four non-consecutive installments. Initially, the title Taoism hinted at the philosophical spirit within Laozi and Zhuangzi’s teachings. However, Tran Trong Kim did not stop there; he comprehensively presented the religious variations of this thought since the Qin and Han dynasties, as well as its positive and negative impacts in Vietnam.
Tran Trong Kim’s work Buddhism was published in 1958 in response to the movement for unifying Vietnamese Buddhism in the North (Vietnamese Buddhist Sangha). Buddhism compiles Tran Trong Kim’s speeches on Buddhist perspectives on life, the twelve links of dependent origination, and the division of Buddhist schools into Mahayana and Theravada.
“Customs and governance stem from scholarship and religious teachings” (Tran Trong Kim, 1920, p. 77). Through Taoism and Buddhism, Tran Trong Kim illuminated the profound scholarly value of these doctrines and their pervasiveness in society, especially among the common people, thanks to religious symbols. As an intellectual living in a time of transition, Tran Trong Kim acknowledged the turmoil and crisis within Vietnamese religious life in Vietnam, but argued that it could not be discarded. He reasoned that the majority of the populace, lacking higher education, “seek a foundation for their beliefs to find peace of mind. Therefore, most people need religion” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, p. 13). However, if religion continued to evolve without establishing its philosophical underpinnings, addressing the increasingly complex issues of human existence would become challenging. Hence, in these two works, Tran Trong Kim deliberately clarified their philosophical content. Regarding the Metaphysics of Ideal State, Buddhism and Taoism share common ground and have strong correlations with Confucianism.
In Taoism, Tran Trong Kim interpreted the concept of “Dao” proposed by Laozi, implying both a subjective and objective existence. “Dao is a natural entity that existed before Heaven and Earth” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, p. 26). In Laozi’s thought, Dao represents the primordial, singular, and objective existence that governs the formation and development of all things. However, this singular existence is present in everything: “All things are born throughout the world and then return to their origin, meaning they return to unify with the Dao” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, p. 27). In its original text, the Tao Te Ching does not explicitly answer what Dao is as a concept. However, this does notlead to the conclusion that the Tao Te Ching lacks ontological inquiries. Tran Trong Kim interpreted Laozi’s thought by unifying ontology and the human psyche’s inner realm. Understanding Dao means grasping the laws of nature, mastering one’s spiritual state, and attaining freedom amidst life and death, becoming “wise, just, and compassionate, capable of unifying with the Dao” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, p. 28). According to him, those who fully comprehend Dao, despite their small physical stature, possess dignity and can traverse the cosmos. Taoism also presents the profound philosophies of two figures who succeeded Laozi: Liezi and Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi, in particular, further developed the Metaphysics of Ideal State by elevating the inner realm to a state of absolute freedom:
“From time immemorial, who hasn’t considered Heaven and Earth vast? Zhuangzi spoke of a principle that encompasses both Heaven and Earth. Since antiquity, who has broken free from the cycle of past and present? Zhuangzi found a way to transcend it. As for intelligence and wisdom, who hasn’t regarded emperors and sages as exemplars? Zhuangzi spoke of a principle for shaping emperors, surpassing even sages. People are often entangled in matters of wealth, poverty, life, and death. Zhuangzi clearly distinguished them: wealth is not glory, poverty is not suffering, life is arrival, and death is return” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, pp. 54-55).
The ideal human figure advocated by Laozi and Zhuangzi is the sage. They use their mind like a mirror, ready to receive and reflect upon all things without becoming attached. They eliminate all extremes and biases, maintaining a mental state known as “the sage’s lack of intention”. Because when the inner realm harmonizes with all things, the sage’s mind becomes the mind of the universe. By grasping this principle, humans can employ reason to transform emotions. All ultimate concerns like life, death, and destiny are thoroughly addressed without worry because “Heaven, Earth, and I are born together, and all things and I are one” (Zhuangzi, 2011, p. 46).
In feudal society, the reason Laozi and Zhuangzi’s mystical philosophy survived alongside the dominant Confucian ideology was largely due to Zhuangzi’s thought. Zhuangzi’s writing ensured the continued existence of Taoism and “led Confucians to absorb the spirit of Taoist thought” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, p. 55). While Laozi and Zhuangzi’s works are deeply philosophical, they still contain elements of mysticism that, over time, transformed into worldly pursuits, discussing practices for cultivating immortality, spirits, and demons. At this point, Laozi and Zhuangzi’s philosophical thought transitioned into a form of religious salvation. Taoism explains this phenomenon by stating that any intellectual pursuit, regardless of its profound philosophies, is ineffective if it fails to uplift the human spirit.
The original thought of Taoism from the Qin and Han dynasties gradually evolved into what is known as “Religious Taoism”. In his work, Tran Trong Kim outlined three main schools within Religious Taoism: the Way of the Immortals, the Way of Divine Revelation, and the Way of Contemplation. During Religious Taoism’s flourishing period, the idea of syncretism became increasingly evident as these schools utilized Confucian and Buddhist ideas to express their doctrines. Each school had its strengths. The Way of Divine Revelation leaned towards skepticism, viewing the universe as obscure, leading to a sense of detachment from worldly affairs. However, Tran Trong Kim considered this school to be the closest to the philosophy of Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Way of the Immortals focused on practices for attaining immortality, influenced by Buddhism (specifically, esoteric Buddhism) and the Yin-Yang School. From a sociological perspective on religion, the Way of the Immortals is a highly organized religion with established hierarchies throughout feudal dynasties. Its pantheon is diverse and significantly influenced Vietnamese folk beliefs, known as “Phu thuy” (shamans) and “Dong cot” (mediums).
Research on Religious Taoism reveals that the shamanistic school in Vietnam is divided into two branches: “Dao noi” (Inner Way), which emphasizes oral transmissions, and “Dao ngoai” (Outer Way, prevalent in Thanh Hoa province), “the way of shamans who often claim to cultivate Yin soldiers and generals, engaging in practices like spirit mediumship, exorcism, assisted communication with spirits, and creating talismans among the populace” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, p. 140). As for the spirit mediumship school, Tran Trong Kim categorized it into two branches: one venerating Hung Dao Dai Vuong (a national hero), and the other following the Mother Goddess religion (Dao Mau). Taoism posits that the Way of the Immortals shifted from inner cultivation to superstition, becoming “crude and extremely inferior among religions” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, p. 142).
Regarding the Way of Contemplation, it encompasses prophecy, divination, numerology, physiognomy, and feng shui. While its roots lie in Taoism, it can be traced back to the influence of the Confucian I Ching. Notably, when discussing prophecies, Tran Trong Kim mentioned two representatives of Chinese and Vietnamese Neo-Confucianism, Shao Yong 邵雍 (1011-1077) and Nguyen Binh Khiem (1491-1585), whose prophecies significantly impacted society. However, as a school within Religious Taoism, the Way of Contemplation is considered ambiguous, unrealistic, and detrimental to social progress.
Overall, Tran Trong Kim’s discussions on various schools within Religious Taoism are relatively critical. Most of them were introduced to Vietnam and left behind negative consequences, leading him to conclude: Laozi and Zhuangzi’s thought, while profound, “deteriorated over time, eventually devolving into bizarre beliefs […] not easily abandoned overnight” (Tran Trong Kim, 2019, pp. 155-156). Therefore, Taoism provided a detailed examination to help readers understand and rationally approach this topic. This leads us to ponder why Tran Trong Kim titled this work Taoism using a rhetorical question: Could it be a reminder for readers to consciously revisit the philosophy of Laozi and Zhuangzi because, without this philosophical foundation, Religious Taoism could easily be misconstrued as superstition?
Regarding Buddhism, Tran Trong Kim, right from the introduction, emphasized the syncretism among the three teachings, stating that when discussing the origin of the universe, “all doctrines are based on the Absolute Li” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, VI). In Buddhism, the Absolute Li refers to “Tathata” 真如 or “Sunyata” 空性. All manifestations of reality arise from and disappear into this emptiness. The Metaphysics of Ideal State in Buddhist philosophy is embodied in two aspects: the symbol of Buddha as an objective existence and the state of inner enlightenment (Nirvana), where all things are inherently empty of self-nature. The latter defines the former; without enlightenment, there’s no Buddhahood.
In this spirit, Buddhism addresses issues related to enlightenment within this very life: “Nirvana and the world are one” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, p. 85). The existence of worldly phenomena is due to dependent origination; they inherently possess nothing to assert their own identity. Therefore, “All that we ordinary beings perceive as real is ultimately unreal” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, p. 86). Only upon realizing that reality arises, is obscured, and ceases within Tathata can we attain a state of absolute freedom and comprehend the true nature of all things.
Tran Trong Kim placed particular emphasis on dependent origination as the root of all phenomena. Accordingly, all things interdependently arise, mutually conditioning and defining each other. Misunderstanding dependent origination leads to the misconception of a separate “self” controlling everything from behind the scenes. He considered the essence of Buddhism to be the inference from cause and effect, “discovering the causal links in creation, tearing down the veil of ignorance that obscures clarity” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, p. 103).
From an ontological perspective, Buddhism argues that Tathata or emptiness is also ignorance. It is the act of discriminating that gives rise to ignorance: “Ignorance is merely a thought arising from Tathata” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958:60). Tran Trong Kim drew upon the spirit of Mahayana Buddhism for this interpretation – a middle-way view that negates all biases to liberate individuals from attachment. Truth does not exist because of dependent origination nor does it come into being through it. This truth is the absolute nature of Tathata. He considered this the core essence of Buddhism: “Without striving to illuminate the path, it will eventually become obscured. This holds true for both Buddhism and Confucianism” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, p. 37).
Tran Trong Kim’s discussions on Buddhist metaphysics might lead one to perceive him as a scholar rather than a practicing Buddhist. This is because the aim of Buddhism is not to answer metaphysical questions but to attain liberation. As illustrated in the Parable of the Poisoned Arrow, the immediate priority for someone hit by an arrow is to treat the wound, not to inquire about the arrow’s origin while bleeding to death (Kinh tiễn dụ, 2000). However, in essence, explaining Buddhism, especially in a society rife with superstition, requires a comprehensive approach, as demonstrated in Tran Trong Kim’s work.
Buddhism originated as a collection of public lectures with fundamental content, further shaped by the author’s scholarly intentions. As a result, it reflects both the spirit of ‘Thus have I heard’ 如是我聞 and a hermeneutical approach. From the perspective of religious salvation, the work reflects Tran Trong Kim’s concerns about the issue of superstition in Vietnamese society, previously addressed in Taoism. Consequently, the Buddhist worldview is presented as a remedy to “alleviate suffering in people’s hearts” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, p. 36), dispel confusion within a troubled society, and foster clarity and courage in navigating life’s challenges.
Ignorance and craving are two burdens analyzed in Buddhism. The salvation discussed in the work lies in transcending these psychological states because clinging to them equates to suffering. While Taoism views the pursuit of immortality, divination, and fortune-telling for knowing one’s fate as sources of delusion and affliction, Buddhism aims for a loftier realm: relinquishing all illusions to attain tranquility while maintaining a drive to understand the true nature of all things. It is “a path with such virtues, truly precious indeed” (Tran Trong Kim, 1958, p. 37).
Both Taoism and Buddhism by Tran Trong Kim thoroughly address philosophical issues, particularly the Metaphysics of Ideal State. Each school possesses unique characteristics that contribute to the diversity of the tripartite structure. However, when discussing them from a religious perspective, Tran Trong Kim viewed the salvation offered by Taoism as a source of superstition, hindering intellectual development. Conversely, Buddhism’s proposed salvation acts as a key to overcoming attachments, playing a significant role in accurately interpreting human life and the spirit of a nation.
Concluding remarks
This article sought to illuminate the intricate relationship among Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism as interpreted by Tran Trong Kim in his works. Rather than asking why religious wars have not occurred in history, a more pertinent question might be: How can the tripartite structure of these teachings adapt to the contemporary context of increasing convergence between East and West?
Tran Trong Kim’s perspective sheds light on this question. He positioned Confucianism as the central element within the harmonious interplay of the three teachings. He then proceeded to modify its content to align with Western notions of science and democracy. This approach seemingly contradicts the question of whether Confucianism itself constitutes a religion. When evaluated through the lens of Western religious concepts, Confucianism may not neatly fit the category. However, as Huang Junjie 黃俊傑 (2010, p. 159) observes, Confucian tradition “possesses strikingly prominent ‘religious characteristics’” in two key areas: personal experience and integration with social structures. Tran Trong Kim’s modernization of Confucianism, emphasizing Liangzhi-Intuition as a personal experience and demonstrating its adaptability to new social structures, reflects these characteristics.
Buddhism and Taoism, within Tran Trong Kim’s tripartite framework, served to complement the Confucian mainstream. He acknowledged the profound philosophical underpinnings of both traditions, particularly their contributions to the Metaphysics of Ideal State, while also elucidating their influence from a religious perspective.
Tran Trong Kim’s adjustments to the tripartite structure were driven by a singular objective: to interpret the meaning of human life. He consistently grappled with the question of life’s purpose, a reflection of his pessimism amidst a period of significant upheaval. This existential inquiry transcended mere expressions of powerlessness; it represented the dedicated efforts of a scholar seeking new avenues for cultural dialogue. While the syncretism of the three teachings had largely adhered to established norms prior to Tran Trong Kim, his interpretations introduced greater diversity in both dimension and form. This highlights his unique perspective as a scholar navigating a period of cultural confluence, determined to bridge the gap between tradition and modernity while seeking a viable path amidst the complex interplay of Pan-Asianism and the desire for a distinctly Asian identity.
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